I. Western Music Reception in Indonesia

Western music(8) reception in Indonesia was thoroughly related with the arrival of the Europeans. The first Europeans arrived in the Indonesian islands were the Portuguese in the sixteenth century.9 They were followed by the Dutch in 1596, the British in 1619, and the Spanish in 1906 consecutively.10 Musical interactions among the Europeans and the local kings have inadvertently brought a new music scene in Indonesia. Western music brought by the Europeans hybridized with Indonesian traditional culture and music, and has created new compounds in the music history of Indonesia. The Europeans have also influenced on the spread of Christianity and later music education in Indonesia. .............................................................................................................................................. 1. The Portuguese influence .............................................................................................................................................. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, Europe was neither the most advanced area nor the most dynamic area of the world.11 Islam was expanding widely in the world –Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 and Islam spread through Indonesia and the Philippines.12 Nevertheless, during the fifteenth century, the Europeans –especially the Portuguese, had improved their geographical and astronomical knowledge, also had produced more maneuverable, more seaworthy and faster ships than before, which made them good navigators.13 Possessing those technological advances, Portuguese seamen and adventurers began their exploration to Asia for gold and spices.14 Spices imports to Europe were monopolized by the Muslim merchants in the Mediterranean in the fifteenth century, and Portuguese attempted to block their way.15 The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Southeast Asia. .............................................................................................................................................. The Portuguese entered Indonesian archipelago after conquering Malacca in 1511.16 Through intense battles, the Portuguese managed to control Malacca. Although the Portuguese did not really succeed in monopolizing the spice trade, the Portuguese had a supreme impact on commerce.17 Until the end of the eighteenth century, the Portuguese language became the lingua franca for trade in most of the coastal regions, and had influenced the Indonesian society in many aspects.18 Many of Indonesian words derived from Portuguese words, such as meja (table), pesta (party), bendera (flag), sabun (soap), sepatu (shoes), and Minggu (Sunday).19 Many Portuguese family names are still found in Ambon: da Costa, da Silva, de Fretas, Dias, Gonsalves, Mendosa, Rodrigues, etc.20 .............................................................................................................................................. The Portuguese also brought missionaries. The influential one was Saint Francis Xavier (b.1506 - d.1952).21 The Roman Catholic missionary –who also introduced Christianity to Japan, was active in spreading Christianity to the peoples of Ambon, Ternate, and Morotai (Moro) from 1546 to 1547, and succeeded in establishing Christian communities.22 The number of Catholics in the area rose from around ten thousands in 1560s to approximately sixty thousands in 1590s, and has continually grown for centuries.23 In order to promote trade colonization, the Portuguese created a policy to encourage their men to marry Asian women. Some of them were slaves.24 The policy has conceived children with mixed-blood, called the Eurasians or Indo-Portuguese.25 This policy was also followed by the Dutch in the middle of the seventeenth century.26 .............................................................................................................................................. The most note-worthy remnant that the Portuguese left in Indonesian society is an Indonesian musical genre known now as keroncong.27 Keroncong can be defined as a five-stringed ukulele-like instrument, a musical ensemble with that instrument itself, and the characteristic of musical style itself.28 Consisting of mostly European chordophones (keroncong, guitar, violin, flute, cello, and light percussion), the ensemble usually accompanies a solo singer, and plays languid songs set in a mediumtempo quadratic rhythm.29 Employing diatonic major-minor scales with simple harmonies, keroncong songs are sung with a vocal style that resembles Western bel canto in its use of vibrato but less ornamentation, and bear a strong resemblance to the Portuguese’s Fado.30 .............................................................................................................................................. The origin of keroncong in Indonesia can be traced back to the music played by the Christianized slaves of the Portuguese –Africans, Indians, Malays –who lived in a settlement of the village of Tugu near Batavia (now Jakarta).31 The music spread from Tugu throughout Java, and has developed into keroncong with several sub-genres within three centuries.32 Slave music was still a common sound in the residents of Dutch merchants in the late seventeenth century –there was an account by a Dutch bride in Batavia dated 1689 which indicated that she had a slave orchestra (consisting of harp, viol, and bassoon) that played during mealtimes.33 By the nineteenth century, keroncong had become well-liked in kampung (lower-class neighborhoods) in Java, and had eventually gained acclaims in a wider social class spectrum in numerous cities by the first half of the twentieth century.34 In the 1930s, keroncong was used in Indonesian films in order to reach broad Indonesian masses, whereas Indonesian composers turned to keroncong style to express their nationalism in their compositions.35 With the banning of foreign pop musics by the Japanese during their occupation, keroncong has inadvertently become a means of rising nationalism among Indonesians.36 After independence in 1945, it has also developed into several regional hybrids (sung in local languages).37 .............................................................................................................................................. 2. The Dutch Influence .............................................................................................................................................. Following trails left by the Portuguese, the Dutch arrived in the archipelago in the late sixteenth century.38 The Dutch war of independence against Spain during 1560s-1648 (in which the Spanish were later allied by the Portuguese in 1580) had disrupted the Dutch access to spices from Asia brought by the Portuguese, and thus had encouraged them to ship directly spices from Asia.39 From the Dutchmen who formerly served the Portuguese in their spice trading, the Dutch gathered information regarding the Portuguese navigational details.40 Also being aware of the problems that the Portuguese faced in their trades, the Dutch improved their ship construction and seaborne armament, and began their expedition in 1595.41 Under Cornelis de Houtman, the Dutch ships arrived in Banten, West Java, in June 1596.42 The Dutch soon became involved in conflicts with the Portuguese and Indonesians, and after losing a number of crews, they returned to the Netherlands in 1597.43 Although it was an incompetent voyage, the expedition managed to board enough spices to make a profit, and had triggered the other Dutch shippers to follow their paths.44 The period known as the “wild” voyages (wilde vaart) began when numerous ships from various Dutch companies set sail during 1598-1601 and competed among each other throughout spice-supplying areas in Indonesia.45 With the proposal of the States-General, the competing companies eventually merged to form the V.O.C. (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, the Dutch East India Company) in March 1602.46 .............................................................................................................................................. After the death of Sultan Agung (r.1613-1645) of Mataram Kingdom, Javanese regional rulers became politically and economically dependent on Dutch advice.47 During the occupation, the political life of Indonesian states was interferred by the Dutch company. Throughout the seventeenth century and up to the middle of the eighteenth century, strives of power between the royal family and religious factions created a series of crises.48 Moreover, the introduction of Islam which arrived in Java in the fifteenth century had ultimately brought cultural adjustments in the pre-Hindu-Buddhist courts’ rituals and performing arts.49 Rebels among the royal families caused the permanent division of Mataram kingdom, the last major Javanese kingdom in Java, into two major and two minor courts –in which they were intense rivals and attempted to distinguish themselves in many aspects, including the performing arts.50 Thus, there were distinctions in style among courts in gamelan, dance, dance drama, and puppet theater.51 .............................................................................................................................................. In the nineteenth century, for political and social reasons, a common society between Javanese courtiers and the Dutchmen (mostly Dutch and Indo administrators, planters, and managers) was formed and had resulted on close friendships.52 Their relationships had inadvertently created mestizo culture –a culture made up of European and Indonesian cultures.53 The mestizo culture actually developed among the Indos, as they had a unique social background –being raised by Asian mothers, were sent to the Dutch school, grew up in European settlements in Asia, yet only a few who actually visited Europe.54 European social dances such as waltzes, polkas, quadrilles, and other popular dance songs were commonly held in the palaces, as well as in the house of the Dutch residents. 55 .............................................................................................................................................. The drinking of liquors, also physical contacts between Javanese ladies and strange men –which had been forbidden by Javanese religion and custom –were tolerated and adopted by Javanese courtiers to show their ritual courtesy to the Europeans.56 It was the effect of the mestizo culture that such tolerance was possible.57 The relationship between the upper-class Europeans and the Javanese courtiers was very intimate, and European music held a significant role in marking the intimate social intercourse.58 European popular music was heard on many court occasions –at times they were played in turn with gamelan, or played together.59 .............................................................................................................................................. The V.O.C. and other European trading companies also brought military music to Indonesia, in which some types of European military music had already existed by the middle of the seventeenth century.60 There was also an account dated in the late eighteenth century which mentioned that a European military band –which consisted of trumpets, drums, flutes (or fifes), and a bendhé (a small gong) had played together with gamelan in a Javanese court.61 Prajuritan (military) music in the Yogyanese court was also an adaptation of European military music, with the combination of European instruments (fifes, trumpets, and tenor drums) and Javanese instruments (gong, bendhe, kecer, kendhang, ketipung).62 In the late nineteenth century, there were already two kinds of Javanese marching band: one of mixed European and Javanese instruments and one of completely European instruments.63 String ensembles were also instituted in the courts in the late nineteenth century.64 .............................................................................................................................................. The Dutch also spread the Calvisim inIndonesia. Catholic missionaries in Ambon were expelled by the Dutch in 1605.65 Since then, the local Catholics began converting to Protestantism. In 1850s the Dutch encouraged Christianisation to the Bataks in Sumatera.66 The Dutch also influenced the increased production of literary works. In the eighteenth century, Chinese and Arabian paper, and writing tools were imported to Java from the Netherlands.67 In Surakarta, a new literary community was formed, consisting of some Indos, Europeans, Chinese, and Javanese pujangga (court poets).68 The literary community spread and subscribed to printed pujangga’s writings, which has influenced the Javanese pujangga to write more Wayang stories, treatises on Javanese music, and many more, in this period.69 .............................................................................................................................................. In 1902, with the aim to make business more profitable by raising the living standards in Indonesia, the Ethical policy was endorsed by the Dutch.70 The policy put their thrusts on three aspects, which were education, irrigation and emigration.71 Through this policy, many projects were conducted and have altered the economic environment rapidly.72 Emigrations to outer islands were done to overcome the problem of overpopulated Java.73 Various public health projects were held. This policy has reduced the mortality rate in Indonesia (although the statistics were still uncertain).74 Schools for natives were also established.75 .............................................................................................................................................. 3. The Establishments of Music Academies .............................................................................................................................................. (1) General Education in Indonesia .............................................................................................................................................. Education in Indonesia can be traced back to the nineteenth century. The first Kweekscholen (training schools for indigenous teachers) opened in 1852, followed by the others years later.76 Vocational schools opened by Christian missions were established in 1881 in Minahasa, the Batak regions of Sumatra, and Java.77 The schools were available only for a few Indonesians, as they were divided into First Class and Second Class schools according to the financial level of the family of the students.78 First Class schools were designed for the upper classes, whereas Second Class schools were for the commoners.79 It was in 1900 when OSVIA (Opleidingscholen voor inlandsche ambtenaren, training schools for native officials) was opened to Indonesians who had finished the European lower schools, and was no longer necessary for the entrants to be from the aristocratic elites.80 In 1900-2, STOVIA (School tot opleiding van inlandsche artsen, school for training native doctors) was also opened for non-aristocratic Indonesians. However, only the Dutch language was used in these schools, and only the children from the wealthy families could go to these schools because of the fee.81 .............................................................................................................................................. The first class schools were reformed in 1907 and in 1914 they turned into Hollandsch-Inlandsche Schools (H.I.S., Dutch native schools, primary equivalent).82 Although H.I.S. principally remained as schools for upper classes (there was still a minimum income requirement for the students’ parents), H.I.S. and Hollandsch-Chineesche (Dutch-Chinese schools) had led broader range of Indonesians to study at schools with European systems.83 Meer uitgebreid lager onderwijs (M.U.L.O., an equivalent of junior high schools) were established in 1914, and in 1919 Algemeene middelbare scholen (A.M.S., general middle schools) were established to lead the students to the university entrance level.84 Only a few Indonesians –who had gone through the European systems to Hoogere burgerschool (H.B.S., higher middle-class school), could continue their studies at universities in the Netherlands.85 .............................................................................................................................................. (2) Music Education .............................................................................................................................................. There was an account referring that music was taught in a “Kweekschool (school for local teachers)” in 1880.86 The music class was only held one hour per week, but it was not certain what kinds of songs were sung.87 During 1920s which also marked the independence movement, several Indonesians educated at H.I.S., M.U.L.O., and H.I.K. (Hollandsche Indische Kweekschool, teacher’s training school) reacted to the uprising national enthusiasm.88 Some of them were the first generation Indonesian composers, such as Wage Rudolf Supratman, Cornel Simanjuntak, and Ismail Marzuki.89 They were taught the basics of western music at those schools, which made their songs be written in Western style, although the lyrics were written in Indonesian language.90 .............................................................................................................................................. In the early of the 20th century, Java was a land of prosperity –economic grew and many foreign traders came to seek for profit. The situation was the same for the music scene of the Western music. Musicians were highly demanded and their performances were highly paid.91 But as there were no high qualified native Indonesian musicians yet, many musicians from European countries came to perform.92 In 1900s, Italian musicians came to perform at some streets in Batavia, singing, playing violins, flutes, and wind organs –they brought chamber operas as well.93 In 1915, some of music professors from Russian conservatories came to Indonesia to escape from the First World War.94 The notable ones were Michailofski (a cellist) and Alexander Hamelnitzky (a pianist), who remained in Indonesia after independence.95 A Russian opera troop arrived in 1920, along with four Russian musicians: Sheychulk, Neudachin (clarinetist), Vondrace (cellist), and Nicolai Varfolomeyef (cellist) in 1925.96 Dutch piano teachers such as Willy van Swers, Van de Wissel, Frans Wiemans, and James Zwart also came to Java during this period.97 Nicolai Varfolomeyef and James Zwart later taught cello and piano (also composition) to Amir Pasaribu –one of Indonesian most notable composers.98 In 1933, musicians from Philippines arrived, and performed American dance music called Foxtrot –which became a trend among Indonesian youth.99 These arrivals were continued until the 1950s, and classical music has expanded its wings to a broader range of Indonesian society. .............................................................................................................................................. The first music school (course) established in Jakarta is Yayasan Pendidikan Musik (YPM) in 1952, with a Hungarian pianist, Frans Szabo as its director.100 Seven years later, a violinist Hendrik Tordasi became the director, followed by an Indonesian prominent pianist, Rudy Laban in 1963. Ananda Sukarlan was once a student of this music school. In 1961, the first music academy for western music Akademi Musik Indonesia in Yogyakarta (AMI, Indonesian Music Academy) was established by Indonesian government.101 Later, Akademi Seni Karawitan Indonesia (ASKI, Indonesian Karawitan Academy) was established in 1964 in Solo, for studies of the traditional music.102 In 1968, proposed by Dewan Kesenian Jakarta (Jakarta Arts Society), Lembaga Pendidikan Kesenian Jakarta (LPKJ, Jakarta Arts Education Center, now IKJ or Institut Kesenian Jakarta) was established along with Taman Ismail Marzuki (TIM, Jakarta Arts Center) –a center of performing arts in Jakarta.103 Four years later, a Japanese company, Yamaha Corporation, established PT Yamaha Musik Indonesia along with a music school, called Yayasan Musik Indonesia (YMI).104 .............................................................................................................................................. In 1984, AMI merged with Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia (ASRI, Indonesia Fine Arts Academy) and Akademi Seni Tari Indonesia (ASTI, Indonesia Dance Academy) into Institut Seni Indonesia Yogyakarta (ISI Yogyakarta, Indonesia Art Institute).105 In 2013, a total number of four ISI can be found in several primary cities –managed by either state government or the Ministry of Education and Culture: ISI Yogyakarta, ISI Surakarta (Solo), ISI Padang Panjang, and ISI Denpasar. Mostly founded in the twentyfirst century, other universities which have music faculties are Universitas Pelita Harapan (UPH, western classical music with foreign lecturers), Institut Musik Indonesia (IMI, western popular music), and Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana (western classical music).106