II. Modern Music Development in Indonesia

Although the arrival of the Europeans brought influence on western music dissemination in Indonesian archipelago, western classical music was only spread among the upper-class Dutch and mestizo communities in several primary cities.107 Western music came to be known by common Indonesians in late nineteenth and early twentieth century, with the establishment of muziek societeit (music society) and muziek ring(music association), also with the introduction of music through public schools for upper class native Indonesians.108 Concert halls such as Gedung Kesenian Jakarta (Jakarta Art Center), Wisma Nusantara (Nusantara’s public building), and Gedung Kesenian Yogyakarta (Yogyakarta Art Center) were also built during the colonial era, and have gained the interest of wider range of Indonesians who were interested in Western music.109 Early twentieth century was the era of technological revolution from the aspects of communication and information. Radio systems reached throughout the principal areas of Indonesia, and as a result, music began to become one of the most important media of communication.110 .............................................................................................................................................. On top of their use for political and cultural propaganda (by the Netherlands in 1930s, the Japanese in 1940s, and Indonesian government after independence), the radio broadcasts had also managed to popularize music in Indonesia.111 Professional musicians were employed in radio stations and other entertainment spots.112 Radio stations located overseas, such as BBC Radio London, ABC Radio Melbourne, Hilversum Radio (Netherlands), Radio VOA Washington, Moscow Radio, Beijing Radio, were also transmitted in Indonesia, so that Indonesians became more familiar with Western music (both popular and classical).113 .............................................................................................................................................. Bintang Radio (Radio Star)114 and Top 10 Music Charts became regular programs broadcasted on Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI, Radio of the Republic of Indonesia), which was the only radio station in Indonesia at that time.115 In 1950s, a number of recordings produced at some newly established recording studios were also broadcasted.116 Bintang Radio played an important role for the development of Indonesian modern music (popular as well as classical).117 It has triggered the existence of the first generation of Indonesian composers influenced by the West, such as Ismail Marzuki, RAJ Soedjasmin, Cornel Simanjuntak, Binsar Sitompul, Amir Pasaribu, Iskandar, Koesbini, Syaiful Bachri, Mochtar Embut, F.X. Sutopo, and many more.118 .............................................................................................................................................. 1. Composers and their compositions .............................................................................................................................................. Suka Hardjana119, in his book “Corat- coret Musik Kontemporer Dulu dan Kini (Sketches: musik kontemporer before and today)”, divides Indonesian composers into four divisions, which are the first generation composers (1930s-1940s), the second generation composers or Bintang Radio generation (1950s-1960s), the post Bintang Radio generation (1960s-1970s), and the composers educated overseas (1930s-now). 120 .............................................................................................................................................. (1) The First Generation Composers (1930s-1940s) .............................................................................................................................................. These first generation composers gained their musical knowledge at missionary schools or teachers’ training schools, such as H.I.S., M.U.L.O., and H.I.K. They were taught the basics of Western music theory, solfeggio, music history, singing, instruments playing, and choir.121 According to Hardjana, the music education at these schools was better than that in today’s public schools.122 The notable composers from this era were Wage Rudolf Supratman, Liberty Manik, Cornel Simandjoentak, and Ismail Marzuki.123 Wage Rudolf Supratman is the composer of the national anthem of Indonesia entitled “Indonesia Raya (lit. Great Indonesia)” and other songs, which have become lagu nasional (national songs). Lagu nasional are songs that represent the country in general. Liberty Manik’s “Satu Nusa Satu Bangsa (lit. one homeland one nation)”, Cornel Simandjoentak’s “Maju Tak Gentar (lit. moving forward without fear)”, and Ismail Marzuki’s “Gugur Bunga (lit. the fallen flower (hero))”, are all included as lagu nasional. As we can see from the title of the songs, all of them are patriotic songs, for these songs were composed in the era of struggling for independence. .............................................................................................................................................. They are usually played with simple chords (I-V-I), if accompanied by instruments. The melody is simple and easy to sing, quite similar to the melody of march music in other countries. This also applies for the other first generation composers’ compositions, which many of them have become lagu nasional. .............................................................................................................................................. (2) The Second Generation Composers or Bintang Radio Generation (1950s-1960s) .............................................................................................................................................. Most of the second generation composers are composers who were recognized by the public by being arrangers, composers, conductors, and accompanists at the famous radio program, Bintang Radio. The notable composers of this generation were Amir Pasaribu, Binsar Sitoempul, R.A.J. Sudjasmin, Ismail Marzuki, Koesbini, Soebronto K. Atmodjo, Soedharnoto, Syaiful Bachri, and Iskandar.125 During this period, vocal songs were numerously composed, which linked to the Tembang Puitik (poetic songs) which I will refer later on the next chapter. Unlike the first generation composers’ works, songs written by the Bintang Radio generation and by the post Bintang Radio generation, are not patriotic anymore, as Indonesia has proclaimed its independence in 1945. Most of them are ballads. .............................................................................................................................................. “Awan (cloud)” is an example of Tembang Puitik which Binsar Sitompul composed inspired by Sanusi Pane’s poem. Here, we notice that the melody and accompaniment are written in modern staff notation, just like the art songs in the West. The poem written by Sanusi Pane described about nature and human emotions. .............................................................................................................................................. Most of the composers in this generation only wrote vocal works. Hardjana excluded Amir Pasaribu, F.A. Warsono, and Mochtar Embut (which I will state later in the post Bintang Radio generation) who had written not only vocal works but also other instrumental works, from the other composers. According to him, the other composers who only wrote vocal works should rather be called “song writers or arrangers” than “composers”. (Hardjana, 2003: 287) .............................................................................................................................................. (3) The Post Bintang Radio Generation (1960s-1970s) .............................................................................................................................................. The composers included in this generation are F.A. Warsono, Mochtar Embut, F.X. Soetopo, and many more.127 The styles of this generation’s compositions are very much similar to the ones of Bintang Radio generation. Instead of vocal works, F.A. Warsono, who was a band leader and saxophonist, wrote compositions for instruments, such as “Melody in C major”, “Melody in F major”, “Seeking the Truth”, “Fiesta (Festival)”, and “Jubileum Fantasi (lit. Anniversary fantasy)”.128 Mochtar Embut, a pianist, also a notable composer of Tembang Puitik (I will refer details about him later in the next chapter), composed “Varia Ibu Kota (lit. the capital city variation)”, “Suite untuk Piano (A suite for piano)”, “Suite untuk Biola dan Piano (A suite for violin and piano)”, “Sangkuriang”, “Sonatina”, and many more.129 Suka Hardjana extracted Amir Pasaribu130, F.A. Warsono, and Mochtar Embut from the other composers, claiming that these three composers were the “real” first generation composers in Indonesia, as they had written instrumental works.131 Hardjana added that the other composers should be called the composers of musik seriosa, or light classical music.132 .............................................................................................................................................. (4) The Composers educated overseas .............................................................................................................................................. In early 1900s, especially in Java, professional musicians from Europe (Italy, Russia, the Netherlands) and America came, for there were many demands on music and theatre performances.133 Many of the first generation of Indonesian musicians as well as composers (Amir Pasaribu was one of them), learned music directly from them.134 Nevertheless, there were also composers who went overseas to study Western classical music. The notable pioneers are Paul Goetama Soegiyo, Slamet Abdul Sjukur, and Trisutji Kamal.135 They are regarded as the composers of “musik kontemporer”. Paul Goetama Soegijo (b.1934) was a student of Amsterdam Conservatory (1957), and studied composition at Hochschule für Musik in Berlin with Boris Blacher.136 A permanent resident of Germany, he established Banjar Gruppe Berlin (an experimental ensemble) in 1973.137 His idea, Musik der Neuen Urspruenglickeit (music for the new ancestor) creates works that employ Javanese gamelan and world music.138 His published works are “Piano study 1”, “Saih I”, “Landschaften”, and many more.139 Trisutji Kamal (b. 28 November 1936) was a student of Henk Badings143 in Amsterdam conservatory. .............................................................................................................................................. She is also a graduate of Ecole Normale de Musique in Paris and Concervatorio Santa Cecilia in Rome. Kamal returned to Indonesia in 1967 and was one of the leading musik kontemporer composers. She utilized conventional “classical” music composition technique in some of her works, such as “Karunia (lit. bless)”, “Panorama Bumi Persada (lit. panorama of the earth)”, “Rhapsodietta”, and some of her piano compositions like “Sunda Seascapes” and “Indonesian Folk Melodies”.144 However in her later works, she employed a hybridized approach in her works which employ ethnic instruments and Islamic elements.145 The most representative composition of Kamal employing indigenous instruments and Islamic musico-religious elements is the large scale work entitled “Persembahan (A Worship)”, written for a Western flute, two poetry reciters (“Dekl” in the notation), two Qori (Quranic chanters), solo soprano, mixed choir (SATB), percussion (“Perk”), a set of Sundanese kendang (double-headed drums), a set of rebana (frame drums), a piano, a bass guitar (“B.Git”), an acoustic guitar (“A.Git”), and a violincello. (Harnish and Rasmussen 2011:299) .............................................................................................................................................. Slamet Abdul Sjukur (b. 30 June, 1935) learned composition from Olivier Messiaen in Conservatoire National Superieur de Musique (1962), Henry Dutilleuux in Ecole Normale de Musique (1967), and Paul Schaeffer in Groupe de Recherches Musicales l’ORTIF (1968). Educated in France, many of his works such as “Parenthesis I-II-III-IV-V-VI” and “Ces Oiseaux (the birds)” were influenced by the French.140 His works “Uwek-uwek” (a composition made for people who don’t understand music, played by mouth, tables, etc.), “Jawara”, “Ji-La-La Ji”, and “Om” were performed in Art Summit Indonesia 1995.142 .............................................................................................................................................. From these three composers’ brief biographies, we can notice that they learned compositions directly in Europe, and have brought a new hybridized musik kontemporer to Indonesia. Regarding musik kontemporer, Suka Hardjana wrote in an article in Kompas Minggu (Sunday Kompas)146: “In specific, musik kontemporer can only be understood by linking it with the development of western music history in Europe and America. Although it can lead to a specific understanding, actually the label “kontemporer (contemporary)” which is appended to art and music doesn’t refer to a normative definition. That is why, especially for people in general, contemporary art or music tends to lead to a misunderstanding.” .............................................................................................................................................. In the world of globalization today, musik kontemporer has no limit or frame. Asian Fantasy Orchestra with their slogan “World Friendship” has performed many hybridized music (with mixed instruments of India, Japan, China, Korea, Vietnam, etc.) in their world tour in Asia and Europe in 1998.147 Qua Etnika led by Djadug Ferianto or the music ensemble of I Wayan Dasra Sono Seni have also performed hybridized music by mixing Western and Eastern instruments.148 A.L. Suwardi in his piece “Swara Gentha” even made his own set of gamelan which consists of all new handmade instruments and a torn piano with only its framework and strings left.149 An association of Indonesian composers, Asosiasi Komponis Indonesia (AKI) was founded in 1994, by Slamet Abdul Sjukur. .............................................................................................................................................. 2. The Origin of Tembang Puitik and Its Definition .............................................................................................................................................. Musik seriosa was a popular genre among the upper-class Dutch and mestizos in the early twentieth century.150 It reached its acme of popularity in 1950s when a singing contest of RRI, “Bintang Radio (Radio Star)”was aired. The term “seriosa” on “A Comprehensive English-Indonesian dictionary” edited by Alan M. Stevens is defined as “semiclassical (music)”.151 Weintraub also concurred by defining musik seriosa as a European-influenced semi-classical vocal genre accompanied by Western instruments.152 However, some accounts refer that the term “seriosa” derives from the English adjective “serious”, in which they should be regarded not as semi-classical music, but the same stance as that of classical music.153 Bintang Radio, a singing contest of RRI, was held annually since 1951, and consisted of three categories: Musik Seriosa, Musik Hiburan (Music for Entertainment), and Musik Keroncong (Keroncong music). Musik seriosa was noted on the third edition of Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI, The Great dictionary of Indonesian language), “musik seriosa is a genre of music which is regarded “serious” and requires high techniques. The term is created to differ it from musik keroncong and musik hiburan.” .............................................................................................................................................. In Bintang Radio, musik seriosa was sub-categorized again into seriosa Indonesia and seriosa Barat (Western seriosa).154 The compositions sung in sub-category seriosa Indonesia were works by Indonesian composers, such as Mochtar Embut, Cornel Simanjuntak, Binsar Sitompul, and many more. While on the contrary, in the sub-category of seriosa Barat, lieder (art songs) in foreign languages, such as German and Italian, were sung.155 Numerous vocal works (musik seriosa) were composed during this era, as there were also contests of musik seriosa compositions, in which the works of the winners would be sung by the vocal contestants.156 Binsar Sitompul (b.1923-d.1991)157 composed “Awan (the cloud)”, “Bagi Kekasih (for the beloved one)”, “Tempat Bahagia (a happy place)”, and many more with the lyrics from Sanusi Pane, also the lyrics by himself.158 F.X. Soetopo (b.1937-d.2006) is also a notable composer for his vocal works. His works are “Cintaku Jauh di Pulau (my love is far away in the island)” by the lyrics from Chairil Anwar, “Elegie (Elegy)” and “Puisi Rumah Bambu (the bamboo house poem)” by Kirdjomoeljo, “Lebur (melt)” by J.B. Moerdopo, and many works by his own lyrics.159 Mochtar Embut (1934-1973), a composer notable for his ballads, composed “Hidup (Alive)”, “Jika Kau Tahu (If you know)”, “Cita-Cita (Ambition)”, inspired by Usmar Ismail’s collection of poems “Puntung Berasap (the smokey stump)”, and many other works, such as “Setitik Embun (a drop of dew)”, “Segala Puji (the entire praise)”, and “Sandiwara (a play)”. 160 .............................................................................................................................................. Mochtar Embut is an autodidact Indonesian composer who is famous for his ballads. His song, “With the Deepest Love from Djakarta” was asked to perform in World Popular Song Festival in Tokyo (with “Love” as the festival’s theme), in 1971, with Elly Sri Kudus as the singer. For further information about the festival, please refer to the link ... http://www.yamaha-mf.or.jp/history/e-history/wpsf/wpsf2.html . (In Japanese, accessed 5 January 2014). His ballads, “Di Wajahku Kulihat Bulan (In your face I see Moon)”, “Di Sudut Bibirmu (In the corner of your lips)”, and many more are popular among Indonesians. He was one of the accompanist (piano) in Bintang Radio during 1950s (Hardjana, 2003:224)............................................................................................................................................... Mochtar Embut utilized a completely Western classical music style in his song. It can be noticed from the use of dynamic markings, tempo markings, and ornamentation. It is also very lyrical, just like the art songs by the Western composers in the Romantic period, such as Schumann and Schubert. ............................................................................................................................................... In year 2000, Binu Sukaman –an Indonesian soprano, along with other musicians, hosted a concert series of Art songs.161 As more concerts were to be held, the hosts came to think of a more appropriate term to call Indonesian art songs.162 Aning Katamsi asserted that it was presumably those musicians who were in charge of hosting a series of art songs concerts, who had come with the new term “Tembang Puitik (poetic songs)”.163 ............................................................................................................................................... According to the first edition of Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI, The Great dictionary of Indonesian Language), “tembang” means “song, verse to be sung” or “poem”. In Java literature, there are poems called Tembang Cilik, Tembang Gede, Tembang Kawi, depending on the number of lines and syllables per verse, also the last vowels used each line. “Tembang” can also serve as a verb, where it alters into “me-nembang”, meaning “to sing a song”. On the contrary, there is no Puitik found in the KBBI volume I. Only “puitis” was included, which means “poetic”.164 In Indonesian, words that end with “-is” such as sistematis (systematic), kritis (critical), teknis (technical), serve as adjectives. While words which end with “-ik” such as sistematik (system), kritik (critic), teknik (technique), usually serve as nouns. Nevertheless, there are some words such as karismatik (charismatic), fanatik (fanatic), autentik (authentic), unik (unique), which serve as adjectives. As we can see, all the words mentioned above are mostly originated from and sound very similar to English. It is indisputable that Indonesian language employed many foreign languages’ words. Russell Jones compiled Indonesian 20,000 loan-words from other languages into the book “Loan-Words in Indonesian and Malay” in 2007. 165 The fact that Indonesian language is new, continuing developing and growing, cannot be denied. Russell stated that the occurrence of the words on the book he edited did not imply that they were used in current Indonesian, but they were found in those spellings in some variety of Malay or Indonesian.166 Thus it can be assumed that puitis and puitik may have the same meaning. As a result, in KBBI volume III, published in 2000, the word “puitik” came to occurrence as a synonym of the word “puitis”. Thus, Tembang Puitik can be translated as poetic songs or songs that are lyrical like poetry. ............................................................................................................................................... The term “Tembang Puitik” is a new term to replace the term musik seriosa. In the present time (2013), the composer with the most numerous number of Tembang Puitik is Ananda Sukarlan. Other composers of Tembang Puitik in the present time (2013) are Trisutji Kamal, Guruh Sukarno Putera, Johannes Sebastian Nugroho, and many more.